Dialectometry and Genetic Demography of Cystic Fibrosis. When Results Converge: The Case of Western Brittany


Nadine Pellen & Tanguy Solliec
Univ Brest, CRBC, Brest, France

Abstract

This article was born out of two separate approaches carried out independently of one another. The first dealt with genetic demography and the second with variational linguistics, aiming to study the population and language of Brittany from a certain perspective. In their recent study of the genetic history of France, Saint Pierre et al. show that Brittany “is substantially closer to the population from north-west Europe than to the north of France, in spite of both being equally geographically close” (2020: 863). They propose that the Bretons’ earliest ancestors could be the descendants of early Neolithic pastoralist nomads from the Steppes (SP) who would have arrived in Brittany (i.e. the ‘NW cluster’) via north-western Europe. The second hypothesis would support the idea of a more recent migration from northern Europe with high SP proportion, i.e., Celtic and/or Anglo-Saxon. Our initial hypothesis is that the convergences in linguistics and genetics may be explained by a unique historical event, namely, the Brittonic settlement of the Armorican peninsula from the 4th through at least the 7th centuries and perhaps as late as the 8th century.

The application of linguistic distance measurements in the study of vernacular Breton varieties by means of a dialectometric analysis made it possible to observe clear correspondences between levels of linguistic similarity and the distribution of the genetic pools linked to cystic fibrosis. The convergence of our collective findings is most clearly manifested in the radical opposition of the north-western and the south-eastern zones of Breton-speaking Brittany in terms of the linguistic and genetic data. In our view, the scientific approach inherent to genetic and dialectometric research and the concordance of these data appear to not only reinforce many of the hypotheses advanced previously but to open new avenues for future research.

Studia Celto-Slavica 12: 63–104 (2021)

https://doi.org/10.54586/NJGT6315

Download PDF

References

  • References

    Barbieri, C., Vicente, M., Oliveira, S., Bostoen, K., Rocha, J., Stoneking, M., & Pakendorf, B., 2014, ‘Migration and Interaction in a Contact Zone: mtDNA Variation among Bantu-Speakers in Southern Africa’, PLoS ONE, Public Library of Science 9 (6) (accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099117

    Bellis, G., Dehillotte, C., & Lemonnier, L., 2019, Registre Français de la Mucoviscidose, Bilan des données 2017, Paris: Vaincre la Mucoviscidose — Institut national d’études démographiques.

    Ben Hamed, M., & Darlu, P., 2007, ‘Gènes et Langues: une longue histoire commune?’, Bulletins et mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris 19 (3–4), 243–264. https://doi.org/10.4000/bmsap.5363

    Boas, F., 1911, The Mind of Primitive Man, New York: The Macmillan Company.

    Bobadilla, J. L., Macek, M. Jr., Fine, J. P., & Farrell, P. M., 2002, ‘Cystic Fibrosis: a Worldwide Analysis of CFTR Mutations-correlation with Incidence Data and Application to Screening’, Human Mutation 19, 575–606. https://doi.org/10.1002/humu.10041

    Bouchard, G., & De Braekeleer, M., 1992, Pourquoi des maladies héréditaires?: Population et génétique au Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean, Sillery: Les éditions du Septentrion.

    Bouget, H., & Coumert, M., 2019, ‘Enjeux épistémologiques des recherches sur les Bretagnes médiévales en histoire, langue et littérature’, in: Bouget, H., & Coumert, M., eds., Histoires des Bretagnes 6, Quel Moyen Âge ? La recherche en question, Brest: CRBC, 15–36.

    Brett, C., 2011, ‘Soldiers, Saints, and States? The Breton Migrations Revisited’, Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies 61, 1–56.

    Brett, C., 2019, ‘An Invisible Migration? The Origins of Brittany’, in: Migrations et territoires celtiques: Mouvement spatial et mutations culturelles / Divroañ hag enbroañ ar Gelted: Dilec’hiañ ha cheñch sevenadur, Longueil / Rennes: Tir / L’instant même, 11–26.

    Broudic, F., 1995, A la recherche de la frontière. La limite linguistique entre Haute- et Basse-Bretagne aux XIXe et XXe siècles, Brest: Emgleo Breiz.

    Brun-Trigaud, G., 2014, ‘Un usage particulier de l’algorithme de Damerau-Levenshtein dans le domaine occitan’, in: Diemoz, F., Aquino-Weber, D., Grüner L., & Reusser-Elzingre, A., eds., “Toujours langue varie…” Mélanges de linguistique historique du français et de dialectologie galloromane offerts à M. le Professeur Andres Kristol par ses collègues et anciens élèves (Recueil de Travaux publiés par la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences humaines de l’Université de Neuchâtel 59), Genève: Droz, 127–148 (available at https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01067295/document [last accessed 26 May 2018]).

    Brun-Trigaud, G., Solliec, T., & Le Dû, J., 2016, ‘A New Dialectometric Approach Applied to the Breton Language’, in: Côté, M.-H., Knooihuizen, R., & Nerbonne, J., The Future of Dialects: Selected Papers from Methods in Dialectology 15. Language Variation, 135–54, Berlin: Language Science Press (last accessed 16 March 2016). https://doi.org/10.17169/langsci.b81.147

    Calafell, de, F., et al., 2004, ‘The Molecular Genetic Epidemiology of Cystic Fibrosis: Report of a Joint Meeting of WHO/ECFTN/ICF(M)A/ECFS, Genoa, Italy, 19 June 2002’ (available at https://www.cfww.org/docs/who/2002/who_hgn_cf_wg_04.02.pdf [last accessed 25 September 2020]).

    Campbell, L., 2015, ‘Do Languages and Genes Correlate?’, Language Dynamics and Change 5 (2), 202–226 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1163/22105832-00502007

    Cassard, J.-C., 2003, Les Bretons de Nominoë, Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.pur.21442

    Cavalli-Sforza, L., Piazza, A., Menozzi, P., & Mountain, J., 1989, ‘Genetic and Linguistic Evolution’, Science 244 (4909), 1128–1129 ([last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2727697

    Cavalli-Sforza, L., 1996, Gènes, peuples et langues, Paris: Odile Jacob.

    Chadwick, N., 1969, Early Brittany, Cardiff: University of Wales Press.

    Cheadle, J.P., Goodchild, M.C., & Meredith, A.L., 1993, ‘Direct Sequencing of the Complete CFTR Gene: the Molecular Characterisation of 99.5% of CF Chromosomes in Wales’, Human Molecular Genetics 2, 1551–1556. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/2.10.1551

    Chédeville, A., & Guillotel, H., 1984, La Bretagne des Saints et des Rois, Ve-Xe siècle, Rennes: Ouest-France.

    Costaouec, D., 1998, Le breton parlé à la forêt-Fouesnant (Finistère-sud) : pratique actuelle. Problèmes de phonologie et de syntaxe, Paris 5 — René Descartes thèse de doctorat nouveau régime.

    Costaouec, D., 2012, ‘Linguistic Geography of Breton and Sociocultural Motivations’, STUF — Language Typology and Universals 65 (1), 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1524/stuf.2012.0004

    Coumert, M., 2010, ‘Le peuplement de l’Armorique: Cornouaille et Domnonée de part et d’autre de la Manche aux premiers siècles du Moyen Age’, in: Coumert, M., & Tétrel, H., eds., Histoires des Bretagnes 1. Les mythes fondateurs, Brest: CRBC, 15–22.

    Estivill, X., Bancells, C., & Ramos, C., 1997, ‘Geographic Distribution and Regional Origin of 272 Cystic Fibrosis Mutations in European Populations’, Human Mutation 10 (2), 135–54 ([last accessed 25 September 2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-1004(1997)10:2<135::AID-HUMU6>3.0.CO;2-J

    Evans, D. E, 1990, ‘Insular Celtic and the Emergence of the Welsh Language’, in: Bammesberger, A., & Wollmann, A., eds., Britain 400–600: Language and History, Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 149–178.

    Excoffier, L., Langaney, A., Dupanloup, I., Polom, E. S., & Schneider, S., 2002, ‘Génétique, linguistique et histoire des peuplements humains’, Langages 36 (146), 80–90 (last accessed 25 September 2020). https://doi.org/10.3406/lgge.2002.2403

    Falc’hun, F., 1981, Perspectives nouvelles sur l’histoire de la langue bretonne (La Nation En Question), Paris: Union Générale d’Editions.

    Falileyev, A., 2003, ‘Languages of Old Wales: A Case for Co-existence’, Dialectologia et Geolinguistica 11, 18–38 (last accessed 25 September 2020). https://doi.org/10.1515/dig.2003.2003.11.18

    Farrell, P., Férec, C., Macek, M., Frischer, T., Renner, S., Riss, K., Barton, D., et al., 2018, ‘Estimating the Age of p.(Phe508del) with Family Studies of Geographically Distinct European Populations and the Early Spread of Cystic Fibrosis’, European Journal of Human Genetics, 26 (12), 1832–1839 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-018-0234-z

    Fichou, Y., Génin, E., Le Maréchal, C., Audrézet, M. P., Scotet, V., & Férec, C., 2008, ‘Estimating the Age of CFTR Mutations Predominantly Found in Brittany (Western France)’, Journal of Cystic Fibrosis 7 (2), 168–173 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcf.2007.07.009

    Fleuriot, L., 1980, Les origines de la Bretagne. L’émigration, Paris: Payot.

    German, G., 1984, Une étude linguistique sur le breton de Saint-Yvi, Brest: Université de Bretagne Occidentale. Doctorat de 3e cycle.

    German, G., 1993, Une méthode dialectométrique (assistée par ordinateur) pour l’analyse des atlas linguistiques, La Bretagne linguistique 7, 177–213.

    German, G., 2006, ‘Anthroponyms as Markers of “Celticity” in Brittany, Cornwall and Wales’, in: Tristram, H. L. C., ed., The Celtic Englishes IV. The Interface between English and the Celtic Languages. Proceedings of the 4th International Colloquium on the “Celtic Englishes” held at the University of Potsdam in Golm (Germany) from 22–26 September 2004, Postdam: Universitätsverlag Potsdam, 34–63.

    German, G., 2008, ‘Language Shift, Diglossia and Dialectal Variation in Western Brittany: The Case of Southern Cornouaille’, in: Tristram, H. L. C., ed., The Celtic Languages in Contact: Papers from the workshop within the framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies, Bonn, July 2007, Potsdam: Universitätsverlag Potsdam, 146–192.

    German, G., 2014, ‘Breton Patronyms and the British Heroic Age’, in: Hellegouarc’h, A., & Williams, H., eds., Regards croisés sur la Bretagne et le pays de Galles/Cross-cultural Essays on Wales and Brittany, Brest: Centre de Recherche Bretonne et Celtique; Aberystwyth: Centre for Advanced Celtic and Welsh Studies, 53–88.

    Gildas, 1978, The Ruin of Britain and other documents (History from the Sources, trans. Winterbottom, M.) Guildford, Surrey: Phillimore.

    Goebl, H., 1982, Dialektometrie: Prinzipien und Methoden des Einsatzes der Numerischen Taxonomie im Bereich der Dialektgeographie, Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

    Goebl, H., 1983, ‘Parquet polygonal et treillis triangulaire, les deux versants de la dialectométrie interponctuelle’, Revue de linguistique romane 47, 353–412.

    Goebl, H., 1984, Dialektometrische Studien: Anhand italoromanischer, rätoromanischer und galloromanischer Sprachmaterialien aus AIS und ALF, Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.

    Goebl, H., 2010, ‘Dialectometry and Quantitative Mapping’, in: Lameli, A., Kehrein R., & Rababus, S., eds., Language and Space. An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation (Vol. 2, Language Mapping), Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 433–457. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110219166.1.433

    Guy, B., 2014, ‘The Breton Migration: a New Synthesis’, Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie 61, 101–156. https://doi.org/10.1515/zcph.2014.006

    Heeringa, W., 2004, Measuring Dialect Pronunciation Differences using Levenshtein Distance, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Groningen: University of Groningen (available at http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/showciting;jsessionid=-328FA9F7293B9025236DF0AAEA070600?cid=36229003 [last accessed 15 March 2016]). [Alternate URL https://pure.rug.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/9800646/c5.pdf, 4 November 2024]

    Humphreys, H., 1991, ‘The Geolinguistics of Breton’, in: Williams, C. H., ed., Linguistic Minorities, Society and Territory, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 96–119.

    Jackson, K. H., 1967, A Historical Phonology of Breton, Dublin: DIAS.

    Labov, W., 1974, ‘On the Use of the Present to Explain the Past’, in: Proceedings of the Eleventh International Congress of Linguists, Bologna: Il Mulino, 825–851.

    Labov, W., 1994, Principles of Linguistic Change. Vol. 1. Internal Factors, Language, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

    Le Berre, Y., & Le Dû, J., 1996, ‘Parité et disparité: sphère publique et sphère privée de la parole’, La Bretagne linguistique 10, Actes du colloque Badume-Standard-Norme, Le double jeu de la langue, Brest: CRBC, 7–25.

    Le Dû, J., 1972, ‘Le Nouvel Atlas Linguistique de Basse-Bretagne’, Etudes celtiques 13 (1), 332–345. https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.1972.1509

    Le Dû, J, 1988, ‘Les appellatifs ethniques dans l’anthroponymie de la Basse-Bretagne’, Mélanges offerts à Pierre Flatrès, Lille: Sociétés des Géographes de Lilles, 67–76. https://doi.org/10.3406/htn.1988.3053

    Le Dû, J., 2001, Nouvel Atlas Linguistique de la Basse-Bretagne, 2 vols., Brest: CRBC.

    Le Roux, P., 1924, Atlas linguistique de la Basse-Bretagne, Rennes: Plihon et Hommay.

    Levenshtein, V. I., 1966, ‘Binary Codes Capable of Correcting Deletions, Insertions and Reversals’, Soviet Physics. Doklady 10, 707.

    Longobardi, G., Ghirotto, S., Guardiano, C., Tassi, F., Benazzo, A., Ceolin, A., & Barbujani, G., 2015, ‘Across Language Families: Genome Diversity Mirrors Linguistic Variation within Europe’, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 157 (4), 630–640 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22758

    Loth, J., 1883, L’émigration bretonne en Armorique, du Ve au VIIe siècle de notre ère, Rennes: E. Baraise et cie.

    Manni, F., & Barrai, I., 2001, ‘Genetic Structures and Linguistic Boundaries in Italy: A Microregional Approach’, Human Biology 73(3), 335–347. https://doi.org/10.1353/hub.2001.0038

    Manni, F., Heeringa, W., & Nerbonne, J., 2006, ‘To What Extent are Surnames Words? Comparing Geographic Patterns of Surname and Dialect Variation in the Netherlands’, Literary and Linguistic Computing 21(4), 507–527 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fql040

    Mayr, E., 1942, Systematics and the Origin of Species, from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Mayr, E., 1954, ‘Change of Genetic Environment and Evolution’, in: Huxley, J., ed., Evolution as a Process, London: George Allen & Unwin, 157–180.

    Mayr, E., 1982, The Growth of Biological Thought. Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

    McMahon, R., 2004, ‘Genes and Languages’, Public Health Genomics 7(1), 2–13 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1159/000080298

    Métoz, L., 2006, ‘L’émergence de la lexicostatistique et de la glottochronologie en France au XIXe siècle: Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, Jules Dumont d’Urville et Paul Broca’, Histoire Épistémologie Langage 28(2), 125–155 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.3406/hel.2006.2886

    Mufwene, S. S., 2001, The Ecology of Language Evolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511612862

    Nerbonne, J., & Heeringa, W., 1997, ‘Measuring Dialect Distance Phonetically’, in: Coleman, J., ed., Workshop on Computational Phonology, Madrid: Association for Computational Linguistics, 11–18 (available at http://aclweb.org/anthology/W/W97/W97-1102, 10 May, 2018 [last accessed 14 June 2021]).

    Nerbonne, J., & Heeringa, W., 2010, ‘Measuring Dialect Differences’, in: Auer, P., & Schmidt, J., eds., Language and Space. An International Handbook of Language Variation — Vol. 1 Theories and Methods, 550–567, Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110220278.550

    Nerbonne, J., Heeringa, W., & Kleiweg, P., 1999, ‘Comparison and Classification of Dialects’, in: Proceedings of the Ninth Conference on European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 281–282. https://doi.org/10.3115/977035.977086

    Nettle, D., & Harriss, L., 2003, ‘Genetic and Linguistic Affinities between Human Populations in Eurasia and West Africa’, Human Biology, 75(3), 331–344 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1353/hub.2003.0048

    Pakendorf, B., 2014, ‘Coevolution of Languages and Genes’, Current Opinion in Genetics & Development (Genetics of Human Evolution) 29, 39–44 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gde.2014.07.006

    Pellen, N., 2015, La mucoviscidose en héritage, Paris: INED. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ined.1623

    Provine, W. B., 2004, ‘Ernst Mayr: Genetics and Speciation’, Genetics 167 (3), 1041–1046. https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/167.3.1041

    Riordan, J. R., Rommens, J. M., Kerem, B., Alon, N., Rozmahel, R., Grzelczak, Z., Zielenski, J., et al., 1989, ‘Identification of the cystic fibrosis gene: cloning and characterization of complementary DNA’, Science 245 (4922), 1066–1073 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2475911

    Rommens, J. M., Iannuzzi, M. C., Kerem, B., Drumm, M. L., Melmer, G., Dean, M., Rozmahel, R., et al., 1989, ‘Identification of the Cystic Fibrosis Gene: Chromosome Walking and Jumping’, Science 245 (4922), 1059–1065 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2772657

    Saint Pierre, A., Giemza, J., Alves, I., Karakachoff, M., Gaudin, M., Amouyel, P., Dartigues, J.-F., et al., 2020, ‘The Genetic History of France’, European Journal of Human Genetics 28 (7), 853–865 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-020-0584-1

    Schreier, D., 2017, ‘Dialect Formation in Isolated Communities’, Annual Review of Linguistics 3 (1), 347–362 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011516-034115

    Scotet, V., Barton, D. E., Watson, J. B. G., Audrézet, M.P., McDevitt, T., McQuaid, S., Shortt, C., De Braekeleer, M., Férec C., & Le Maréchal, C., 2003, ‘Comparison of the CFTR Mutation Spectrum in Three Cohorts of Patients of Celtic Origin from Brittany (France) and Ireland’, Human Mutation 22 (1), 105 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/humu.9158

    Segalen, M., 1985, Quinze générations de Bas-Bretons. Parenté et société dans le pays bigouden Sud, 1720–1980, Paris: Presses universitaires de France.

    Séguy, J., 1971, ‘La relation entre la distance spatiale et la distance lexicale’, Revue de linguistique romane 35 (139–140), 335–357.

    Séguy, J., 1973a, ‘La dialectométrie dans l’Atlas linguistique de la Gascogne’, Revue de linguistique romane 37 (145–146), 1–24.

    Séguy, J., 1973b, Atlas linguistique de la Gascogne, vol. VI, Paris: Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique.

    Serva, M., 2012, The Settlement of Madagascar: What Dialects and Languages Can Tell Us. PLoS ONE 7 (2). e30666 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030666

    Serva, M., Petroni, F., Volchenkov, D., & Wichmann, S., 2012, ‘Malagasy Dialects and the Peopling of Madagascar’, Journal of The Royal Society Interface 9 (66), 54–67 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2011.0228

    Sherriah, A. C., Devonish, H., Thomas, E. A. C., & Creanza, N., 2018, ‘Using Features of a Creole Language to Reconstruct Population History and Cultural Evolution: Tracing the English Origins of Sranan’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373 (1743) (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0055

    Sims-Williams, P., 1998, ‘Genetics, Linguistics, and Prehistory: Thinking Big and Thinking Straight’, Antiquity 72 (277), 505–527 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00086932

    Sims-Williams, P., 2012, ‘Bronze- and Iron-Age Celtic-speakers: What Don’t We Know, What Can’t We Know, and What Could We Know? Language, Genetics and Archaeology in the Twenty-first Century’, The Antiquaries Journal 92, 427–49 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1017/S000358151200011X

    Slon, V., Mafessoni, F., Vernot, B., de Filippo, C., Grote, S., Viola, B., Hajdinjak, M., et al., 2018, ‘The Genome of the Offspring of a Neanderthal Mother and a Denisovan Father’, Nature 561 (7721), 113–116 (last accessed 14 June 2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0455-x

    Solliec, T., 2017, ‘Explorer la variation en breton grâce à la dialectométrie: la Basse-Bretagne considérée par la distance linguistique’, La Bretagne linguistique 21, 29–61. https://doi.org/10.4000/lbl.307

    Solliec, T., 2019, ‘Unity in Diversity? A Fine-grained Approach to the Linguistic Geography of Breton by the Means of Dialectometry’, Studia Celto-Slavica 10, 137–173. https://doi.org/10.54586/BLHO8775

    Solliec, T., 2021, Distance linguistique et dialectométrie, une application à la langue bretonne. Enjeux, méthodologie et interprétations, unpublished PhD dissertation, Brest: University of Western Brittany.

    Tristram, H. L. C., 1993, ‘Zwiebeln und Wörter: Zum Sprachkontakt über den Ärmelkanal’, in: Zimmer, S., & Rockel, M., eds., Akten des ersten Symposiums deutschsprachiger Keltologen in Berlin, 8.–10. April 1992, Tübingen: Niemeyer, 13–51. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110962338-025

    Tristram, H. L. C., 1995a, ‘Linguistic Contacts across the English Channel: The Case of the Breton Retroflex <r>’, in: Fisiak, J., ed., Linguistic Change under Contact Conditions, Berlin: de Gruyter, 291–313. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110885170.291

    Tristram, H. L. C., 1995b, ‘Zaoz and Zomerzet: Linguistic Contacts Across the English Channel’, in: Viereck, W., ed., Verhandlungen des Internationalen Dialektologenkongresses Bamberg 1990 (Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 77), Stuttgart: Steiner, 276–289.

    Trudgill, P., 2004, New-dialect Formation. The Inevitability of Colonial Englishes, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

    UK Cystic Fibrosis Registry, 2019, 2018 Annual Data Report (available at https://www.cysticfibrosis.org.uk/sites/default/files/2020-12/2018%20Registry%20Annual%20Data%20Report.pdf [last accessed 22 August 2020]).

    Zolin, A., Orenti, A., Naehrlich L., van Rens, J., et al., 2019, ECFSPR Annual Report, 2017 (available at https://www.ecfs.eu/sites/default/files/general-content-images/working-groups/ecfs-patient-registry/ECFSPR_Report2017_v1.3.pdf)